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Founder of the Perumpadappu Swaroopam (Cochin) Traditional founder-figure of the Perumpadappu Swaroopam, the royal house that became the Kingdom of Cochin; another successor state to the fragmented Kulasekhara kingdom. Individual early rulers are not consistently named across surviving sources, so a placeholder founder-role is recorded here... Founder of the Venad line (Travancore's precursor) Traditional founder-figure of the Venad kingdom in southern Kerala, one of the successor states to the Kulasekhara kingdom; the line later developed into the Travancore royal house in the early modern period. Individual early rulers are not consistently named across... Founder of the Zamorin line (Calicut) Traditional founder-figure of the Nediyiruppu Swaroopam, which rose to prominence at Calicut (Kozhikode) after the Kulasekhara kingdom's fragmentation; individual early rulers of this line are not consistently named across surviving sources, so a placeholder founder-role is recorded here rather than an invented specific name Ravi Varma Kulasekhara Traditionally regarded as the last significant ruler of the unified Mahodayapuram Chera kingdom Rama Varma Kulasekhara One of the later Kulasekhara rulers; the precise sequence and dating of the dynasty's later kings is less firmly established than its earlier phase Vijayaragadeva Later ruler of the Mahodayapuram Chera line, known from inscriptional records of the dynasty's middle period Sthanu Ravi Varma Chera king of Mahodayapuram known from several dated inscriptions, including grants to Jewish and Christian communities on the Malabar coast (the Jewish and Syrian Christian copper plates), which are significant early records of those communities in India Rajasekhara Varman Early ruler of the Mahodayapuram Chera line, known chiefly from later Kerala inscriptions and the Vazhappally copper plate Kulasekhara Alwar Traditionally identified as the founder of the medieval (second) Chera kingdom centered at Mahodayapuram (Kodungallur), and separately venerated as one of the twelve Vaishnava Alvar saint-poets Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan A Bana-lineage chieftain and Chola military commander; widely known as Kundavai's husband through Kalki Krishnamurthy's historical novel Ponniyin Selvan Madhurantaki Daughter of Rajendra II, married to her cousin Kulottunga I; the marriage is recorded in Chola-era inscriptions as helping secure the merged Chola-Chalukya succession Sembiyan Mahadevi Queen of Gandaraditya and mother of Uttama Chola; outlived her husband by several decades and became one of the most prolific temple builders and patrons in Chola history, commemorated in numerous inscriptions across the Kaveri delta Sundara Pandyan Son of Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, rival claimant to the throne against his brother Vira Pandyan; some accounts describe him seeking Delhi Sultanate support against his brother Vira Pandyan Son of Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I; his succession dispute with his brother Sundara Pandyan is recorded as inviting the Delhi Sultanate's invasion under Malik Kafur Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I Later Pandya king whose reign ended in a succession dispute between his two sons, Vira Pandyan and Sundara Pandyan, which invited outside intervention Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I The most powerful ruler of the Second Pandya Empire; decisively defeated the last Chola king Rajendra III and the Hoysalas, absorbing former Chola territory and re-establishing Pandya supremacy over most of the Tamil country Maravarman Sundara Pandyan I Medieval Pandya king who campaigned against the Cholas and briefly captured Chola territory including Thanjavur, before being repelled Kadungon Credited with reviving Pandya power around the late 6th century CE after a long period of obscurity/Kalabhra interregnum, beginning the medieval Pandya line Rajendra III The last ruler of the Chola dynasty; his reign ended when the resurgent Pandya empire under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I absorbed Chola territory, closing over four centuries of medieval Chola rule Rajaraja III Chola king whose weak reign saw increasing Hoysala and Pandya interference in Chola affairs Kulottunga III Chola king who campaigned against the Pandyas and Hoysalas; among the last Cholas to exercise substantial imperial authority Rajadhiraja II Later Chola king; the precise line of succession in this period of the dynasty is less clearly attested than in the earlier imperial phase Rajaraja II Chola king during whose reign the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram was built Kulottunga II Chola king remembered for renovating the Chidambaram Nataraja temple Vikrama Chola Son and successor of Kulottunga I Kulottunga I Founder of the Chalukya-Chola line; united the Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi with the Chola throne, reorganized land revenue administration, and maintained trade relations with Song-dynasty China Athirajendra Son of Virarajendra; the last Chola ruler of the direct senior line before the throne passed to Kulottunga I, who was related through the Chalukya-Chola marriage alliance Virarajendra Youngest son of Rajendra I; continued campaigns against the Western Chalukyas and intervened in Pandya succession disputes Rajendra II Son of Rajendra I, crowned on the battlefield at Koppam after his brother Rajadhiraja I's death; continued the war against the Western Chalukyas Rajadhiraja I Son and successor of Rajendra I; continued Chola military campaigns against the Chalukyas and Pandyas, and was killed in battle at Koppam against the Western Chalukyas Rajaraja Narendra Eastern Chalukya king of Vengi; his marriage to the Chola princess Ammangadevi produced Kulottunga I, who eventually united the Chola and Eastern Chalukya thrones Ammangadevi Daughter of Rajendra Chola I, married to the Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra of Vengi; mother of Kulottunga I, whose accession later merged the Chola and Eastern Chalukya lines Vanavan Mahadevi Chief queen of Rajendra Chola I Rajendra Chola I Son and successor of Rajaraja I; led the famous naval expedition against the Srivijaya empire in Southeast Asia and a northern campaign that reached the Ganges, taking the title Gangaikonda Chola ('bringer of the Ganges') and founding the new capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram Kundavai Elder sister of Rajaraja I; a major temple patron in her own right, commemorated in several inscriptions for her donations and administrative role Lokamahadevi Chief queen of Rajaraja I, named in temple inscriptions at Thanjavur Rajaraja I One of the greatest Chola emperors; built the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, conducted extensive naval campaigns (including against Sri Lanka and the Maldives), and reorganized the empire's revenue and administrative systems Uttama Chola Cousin of Rajaraja I who reigned before him; the succession between the two branches of the family was resolved in Rajaraja I's favor after Uttama Chola's reign Aditya II Elder son of Sundara Chola, credited with a naval victory over the Pandyas; died before succeeding to the throne, under disputed circumstances Sundara Chola Chola king who restored Chola fortunes after the Rashtrakuta setback; father of Rajaraja I Arinjaya Younger son of Parantaka I; ruled briefly during a period of Chola weakness following the defeat at Takkolam Gandaraditya Son of Parantaka I; a devotee king remembered for Shaiva devotional hymns attributed to him in later tradition Parantaka I Chola king who defeated the Pandyas and briefly took the Sri Lankan capital Anuradhapura, but was later defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III at the Battle of Takkolam Aditya I Chola king who defeated the Pallava king Aparajita, ending Pallava supremacy in Tondaimandalam and greatly expanding Chola territory Vijayalaya Chola Founder of the medieval (imperial) Chola line; captured Thanjavur from the Muttaraiyars around the mid-9th century CE, ending centuries of Chola obscurity after the Sangam-era dynasty Madhavi (dancer of Puhar) A celebrated dancer-courtesan of Puhar; Kovalan's companion for several years and mother of their daughter Manimekalai Killi (of the Manimekalai) The Chola king reigning during the Manimekalai narrative, who converts a prison into a Buddhist monastery at Manimekalai's request Killivalavan The Chola king ruling at the climax of the Silappatikaram narrative; distinguished here from the many other Chola rulers also referred to with the 'Killi' title elsewhere in the corpus Udayakumaran A Chola prince in the Manimekalai who becomes obsessively infatuated with Manimekalai and pursues her despite her having taken up ascetic/monastic vows Kopperundevi Queen consort of the Pandya king Nedunjeliyan; the anklet mistaken for the queen's stolen anklet is the false evidence used to convict and execute Kovalan Kannagi's father A wealthy sea-merchant/ship-owner of Puhar named as Kannagi's father in the Silappatikaram; the exact spelling of his name varies across editions and retellings, so it is recorded here with that variation flagged rather than as a single settled spelling Madari An elderly cowherd woman of Madurai's outskirts who shelters Kovalan and Kannagi when they arrive from Puhar, in the Silappatikaram Masattuvan A phenomenally wealthy merchant prince of Puhar (Kaveripoompattinam); father of Kovalan in the Silappatikaram Manimekalai Daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi; heroine of the epic Manimekalai, in which she resists a prince's advances, gains magical powers, and eventually renounces the world as a Buddhist nun Kannagi Heroine of the Silappatikaram, deified as the goddess of chastity (Pattini) after proving her husband Kovalan's innocence and cursing Madurai to burn Kovalan Merchant of Puhar (Kaveripoompattinam), husband of Kannagi and protagonist of the Silappatikaram Auvaiyar Celebrated Sangam-era poet, closely associated with the chieftain Adhiyaman Neduman Anji and credited with numerous didactic and devotional verses Kapilar Sangam-era poet closely associated with the chieftain Pari; composed many poems in his praise and arranged the marriages of Pari's daughters after his death Adhiyaman Neduman Anji One of the Kadai Ezhu Vallalgal ("the last of the seven patrons"), legendary Sangam-era chieftains renowned for extraordinary generosity to poets. Associated with Tagadur (Dharmapuri). Chieftain of Tagadur, famed for his friendship with the poet Auvaiyar and for once giving... Nalli One of the Kadai Ezhu Vallalgal ("the last of the seven patrons"), legendary Sangam-era chieftains renowned for extraordinary generosity to poets. Associated with Unspecified hill country. One of the seven legendary patrons of Sangam poetry, celebrated for liberality toward poets Ay Andiran One of the Kadai Ezhu Vallalgal ("the last of the seven patrons"), legendary Sangam-era chieftains renowned for extraordinary generosity to poets. Associated with Podhigai hills / Ay kingdom. Chieftain of the Podhigai hill country near Agastya's traditional hermitage, celebrated for... Pekan One of the Kadai Ezhu Vallalgal ("the last of the seven patrons"), legendary Sangam-era chieftains renowned for extraordinary generosity to poets. Associated with Aviyar country. Chieftain celebrated for generosity; his wife Kannagi (a different figure from the Silappatikaram's Kannagi) is... Ori One of the Kadai Ezhu Vallalgal ("the last of the seven patrons"), legendary Sangam-era chieftains renowned for extraordinary generosity to poets. Associated with Kolli hills. Chieftain of the Kolli hills, celebrated in Sangam poems, notably by the poet Kabilar, for his hospitality Kari One of the Kadai Ezhu Vallalgal ("the last of the seven patrons"), legendary Sangam-era chieftains renowned for extraordinary generosity to poets. Associated with Malaiyaman country. One of the seven legendary patrons of Sangam poetry, praised for his liberality Pari One of the Kadai Ezhu Vallalgal ("the last of the seven patrons"), legendary Sangam-era chieftains renowned for extraordinary generosity to poets. Associated with Parambu hills. Chieftain of Parambu, celebrated for his generosity toward the poet Kapilar; killed by a coalition... Narasimhavarman I Pallava king credited with founding Mamallapuram and building its rock-cut monuments; defeated the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II Mahendravarman I Pallava king, patron of rock-cut cave temples, and playwright credited with the satirical Sanskrit drama Mattavilasaprahasana Simhavishnu Founder-consolidator of the Pallava dynasty's imperial phase, said in inscriptions to have conquered territory as far as the Kaveri delta Mudathirumaran Pandya king, subject of Sangam-era Purananuru poems, praised for his generosity and just rule Nedunjeliyan Pandya king subject of the Maduraikkanci, victor of the battle of Talaiyalanganam against a coalition of Chera, Chola and minor chieftains; central figure of the Madurai-court chapters of the Silappatikaram Kocengannan Legendary Chola king celebrated in later Saiva tradition (the Periya Puranam) as a devotee who built seventy temples to Shiva; also referenced in Sangam-era poems Nedunkilli Chola king and rival claimant mentioned alongside Nalankilli in Purananuru poems concerning succession disputes within the Chola line Nalankilli Chola king mentioned in Purananuru poems, engaged in rivalry with his kinsman Nedunkilli over the Chola throne Ilanjetchenni A Chola king named as father of Karikala Chola in some traditional genealogies, though Sangam-era sources give differing accounts of Karikala's ancestry Karikala Chola The most celebrated early Chola king, credited with the victory at the Battle of Venni and with founding embankments along the Kaveri river; central figure of the Pattinappalai Palyanai Sel Kezhu Kuttuvan Chera king subject of the Second Decad of the Padirruppattu Ilango Adigal Traditionally identified as the royal-born author of the Silappatikaram and a younger brother of Cheran Senguttuvan who renounced the throne to become a Jain/ascetic monk Cheran Senguttuvan The most celebrated Chera king, subject of the Fifth Decad of the Padirruppattu and central to the Silappatikaram, where he consecrates the deified Kannagi as the goddess Pattini Kuttuvan Kotai Son of Imayavaramban Nedunjeral Adan, mentioned as a Chera prince in the Padirruppattu genealogies Imayavaramban Nedunjeral Adan Chera king celebrated in the Padirruppattu (First Decad) for campaigns said to have reached the Himalayas, where he carved the Chera bow emblem into the mountain Udiyanjeral Early Chera king praised in the Padirruppattu for feeding both armies at the Mahabharata war in a later legendary claim; historically one of the earliest attested Chera rulers Levi (son of Jacob) Third son of Jacob and Leah (per the Genesis text); ancestor of the tribe of Levi, later set apart for priestly and Tabernacle service Jeroboam Former official under Solomon; the text describes the prophet Ahijah foretelling that he would rule ten of the twelve tribes, which came to pass when he became the first king of the northern kingdom of Israel after Rehoboam's accession Rehoboam Son of Solomon; his harsh response to the northern tribes' request for lighter burdens, per 1 Kings, precipitated the split of the united kingdom into Judah (which he retained) and Israel Joab Commander of David's army and his nephew per some genealogical notes in the text; responsible for several killings during David's reign, including Abner and Absalom, and was ultimately executed under Solomon's orders Nathan (the prophet) Prophet during David's reign; the text records him confronting David over Uriah's death with a parable, and later supporting Solomon's succession to the throne Solomon Son of David and Bathsheba; succeeded David as king, built the First Temple in Jerusalem, and is described in 1 Kings as renowned for wisdom and for extensive building and trade activity Adonijah Son of David who, per 1 Kings, attempted to claim the throne in David's old age before Solomon was confirmed as successor; later executed by Solomon after a further perceived claim on the throne Absalom Son of David; the text describes his killing of Amnon to avenge Tamar, his later rebellion against David, and his death at the hands of Joab despite David's order to spare him Tamar (daughter of David) Daughter of David and full sister of Absalom; the text records the assault against her by her half-brother Amnon Amnon Eldest son of David; the text records his assault on his half-sister Tamar and his subsequent murder by her brother Absalom in revenge Uriah the Hittite A soldier in David's army, husband of Bathsheba; the text records that David arranged his death in battle after Bathsheba became pregnant by David Bathsheba Wife first of Uriah the Hittite, then of David after Uriah's death in battle, arranged at David's order per the text; mother of Solomon Abigail Formerly the wife of Nabal of Carmel; the text describes her wisdom in averting David's anger at Nabal, and her marriage to David after Nabal's death Ahinoam of Jezreel A wife of David from Jezreel, named in the text as mother of his eldest son Amnon David Youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem; anointed by Samuel, rose from shepherd and court musician to Saul's general, then became king of Judah and later of a united Israel, per 1-2 Samuel Abner Commander of Saul's army and, after Saul's death, the power behind Ish-bosheth's kingship; the text records his eventual defection toward David and his subsequent assassination by Joab Michal Younger daughter of Saul; the text describes her love for David, her help in his escape from Saul, and her later estrangement from him after criticizing his conduct Merab Elder daughter of Saul, originally promised to David in marriage per the text, but given instead to Adriel of Meholah Ish-bosheth Son of Saul, briefly made king over the northern tribes after his father's death, in opposition to David's kingship over Judah; the text records his assassination by two of his own officers Jonathan Eldest son of Saul; the text describes a close bond of loyalty between him and David, and records his death alongside his father at the battle of Gilboa Ahinoam (wife of Saul) Named in the text as Saul's wife and mother of his children Saul First king of Israel, anointed by the prophet Samuel; the text follows his early successes, his growing conflict with David, and his death in battle against the Philistines Kish A Benjaminite, father of Saul, described in the text as a man of standing Abijah (son of Samuel) Younger son of Samuel, named alongside his brother Joel as a judge whose conduct helped prompt Israel's request for a king Joel (son of Samuel) Elder son of Samuel; the text records that he and his brother Abijah did not follow their father's ways as judges, which the elders of Israel cited in asking for a king Samuel Prophet, judge and the last of Israel's pre-monarchic leaders; the text describes him anointing both Saul and later David as king Peninnah The second wife of Elkanah, described in the text as having children of her own and provoking Hannah over her childlessness Hannah Wife of Elkanah; the text describes her years of childlessness, her prayer at Shiloh, and her vow to dedicate her son to the Lord's service Elkanah An Ephraimite man, husband of Hannah and Peninnah, father of Samuel Phinehas (son of Eli) Son of Eli, distinct from Aaron's grandson Phinehas; killed alongside his brother Hophni in the battle in which the Ark of the Covenant was captured Hophni Son of Eli; the text describes him and his brother Phinehas (a different Phinehas from Aaron's grandson) abusing their priestly office, and both were killed in battle against the Philistines Eli Priest and judge at Shiloh; the text records his sons' misconduct in the priesthood and the eventual downfall of his household Jesse Father of King David, of Bethlehem in Judah Obed Son of Boaz and Ruth; the text names him as grandfather of Jesse and great-grandfather of King David Boaz A prosperous kinsman of Elimelech in Bethlehem; marries Ruth as her kinsman-redeemer, per the Book of Ruth Orpah A Moabite woman, sister-in-law of Ruth, who returns to her own people rather than accompanying Naomi back to Bethlehem Ruth A Moabite woman who, widowed, chose to stay with her mother-in-law Naomi and return to Bethlehem; later remarried Boaz and became, per the text, great-grandmother of King David Chilion Son of Elimelech and Naomi; the text names him as Orpah's husband, who died in Moab Mahlon Son of Elimelech and Naomi; the text names him as Ruth's first husband, who died in Moab Naomi Wife of Elimelech and mother-in-law of Ruth; the text follows her return to Bethlehem after the deaths of her husband and two sons Elimelech A man of Bethlehem in Judah who, per the Book of Ruth, moved his family to Moab during a famine Delilah A woman from the valley of Sorek whom the text describes as bribed by Philistine rulers to discover and betray the secret of Samson's strength Wife of Manoah Mother of Samson; left unnamed in the biblical text itself, which records only her role in the birth-announcement narrative Manoah Father of Samson; the text describes an angel announcing Samson's birth to him and his wife Samson Judge and deliverer of Israel from the Book of Judges (tribe of Dan). A Nazirite from birth whose great strength is tied in the text to his uncut hair; famed for his conflicts with the Philistines and his betrayal by Delilah. Jephthah Judge and deliverer of Israel from the Book of Judges (tribe of Gilead (Manasseh)). A Gileadite judge whose story includes a rash vow before battle with the Ammonites that the text says cost him his daughter's future. Gideon Judge and deliverer of Israel from the Book of Judges (tribe of Manasseh). Also called Jerubbaal; the text describes him reducing his army to 300 men before defeating the Midianites, and later refusing to be made king. Barak Judge and deliverer of Israel from the Book of Judges (tribe of Naphtali). Military commander who, at Deborah's direction, led Israel's forces against Sisera's army. Deborah Judge and deliverer of Israel from the Book of Judges (tribe of Ephraim). A prophetess and judge; the text records her directing the military leader Barak against the Canaanite commander Sisera. Shamgar Judge and deliverer of Israel from the Book of Judges (tribe of (not specified in the text)). Briefly mentioned as striking down a large number of Philistines with an ox-goad. Ehud Judge and deliverer of Israel from the Book of Judges (tribe of Benjamin). Described as left-handed; the text records him assassinating the Moabite king Eglon and leading Israel's deliverance from Moabite oppression. Othniel Judge and deliverer of Israel from the Book of Judges (tribe of Judah). The text names him the first of the judges, who delivered Israel from Cushan-rishathaim of Aram; married Caleb's daughter Achsah. Bezalel Craftsman from the tribe of Judah credited in Exodus with the skilled construction of the Tabernacle and its furnishings Jephunneh Father of Caleb, named in the Numbers genealogies as a Kenizzite Caleb One of the twelve spies sent into Canaan; along with Joshua, the only one of that generation the text says was permitted to enter the promised land, for having given a faithful report Nun (father of Joshua) Father of Joshua, named in the Exodus/Numbers genealogies with no further detail given about him in the text Joshua Moses' attendant and one of the twelve spies sent into Canaan; succeeded Moses as leader and led the conquest narrative recorded in the Book of Joshua Phinehas Grandson of Aaron; the text credits him with halting a plague among the Israelites through a decisive act of zeal, after which he is promised a perpetual priesthood for his line Ithamar Youngest son of Aaron, given oversight of the Levite clans' service duties for the Tabernacle Eleazar Third son of Aaron; succeeded him as High Priest after his death Abihu Elder son of Aaron; the text records that he and his brother Abihu/Nadab were killed by divine fire for offering 'unauthorized fire' before the Lord Nadab Elder son of Aaron; the text records that he and his brother Abihu/Nadab were killed by divine fire for offering 'unauthorized fire' before the Lord Eliezer (son of Moses) Younger son of Moses and Zipporah Gershom Elder son of Moses and Zipporah Jethro (Reuel) Midianite priest, father-in-law of Moses; the text describes him advising Moses to delegate judicial duties to appointed leaders Zipporah Wife of Moses, daughter of the Midianite priest Jethro/Reuel, mother of Gershom and Eliezer Moses Central figure of Exodus through Deuteronomy; the text describes him leading the Israelites out of Egypt, receiving the Law at Sinai, and leading the wilderness generation for forty years Elisheba Wife of Aaron, named in Exodus as mother of Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar Aaron Brother of Moses, described in Exodus as his spokesman before Pharaoh and later installed as the first High Priest of Israel Miriam Sister of Moses and Aaron, described in Exodus as a prophetess who led the Israelite women in song after crossing the Sea of Reeds Jochebed Mother of Moses, Aaron and Miriam; the text records that she hid the infant Moses for three months before placing him in a basket on the Nile to save him from Pharaoh's decree Amram Father of Moses, Aaron and Miriam per the Exodus/Numbers genealogies Kohath Son of Levi; the text names him as ancestor of the Kohathite Levitical clan, which includes Moses and Aaron's family Pushyamitra Shunga Commander-in-chief of the last Maurya emperor Brihadratha; assassinated him and founded the Shunga dynasty, ending Maurya rule. Brihadratha Maurya Last ruler of the Maurya dynasty, assassinated by his own military commander Pushyamitra Shunga, who founded the succeeding Shunga dynasty. Shatadhanvan Later Maurya ruler named in the Puranic king-lists, reigning as Maurya territory continued to contract. Devavarman Later Maurya ruler named in the Puranic king-lists during the empire's decline. Shalishuka Later Maurya ruler named in the Puranas as a successor in the declining phase of the empire; little independent detail survives about his reign. Samprati Grandson of Ashoka through Kunala; venerated in Jain tradition as a great patron and builder of Jain temples, sometimes called a 'second Ashoka' for Jainism. Dasharatha Maurya Grandson (in most accounts) of Ashoka who succeeded him on the throne; known from a small number of cave dedications to the Ajivika sect in the Nagarjuni Hills. Kunala Son of Ashoka; the Ashokavadana describes him as blinded through the machinations of queen Tishyaraksha, after which he became a wandering musician before being recognized. Tivara Son of Ashoka named in his own Queen's Edict; one of the few of Ashoka's children mentioned in his contemporary inscriptions rather than only in later tradition. Sanghamitra Sanghamitta Daughter of Ashoka; according to Sri Lankan chronicle tradition, brought a sapling of the original Bodhi tree to Sri Lanka and established the bhikkhuni order there. Mahendra Mahinda Son of Ashoka; according to Sri Lankan chronicle tradition (the Mahavamsa), led the Buddhist mission that introduced Buddhism to Sri Lanka. Tishyaraksha A later queen of Ashoka; the Ashokavadana describes her as jealous of Prince Kunala and responsible for his blinding. Kaurwaki A queen of Ashoka named in one of his minor edicts (the Queen's Edict) as mother of Tivara. Devi (queen) Vidisha Mahadevi; Shakyakumari in some accounts A wife of Ashoka, married before his accession to the throne, traditionally named as mother of Mahendra and Sanghamitra. Ashoka Ashoka the Great; Devanampiya Piyadasi ('Beloved of the Gods') in his own edicts Third Maurya emperor, ruler of the largest extent of the empire; his own rock and pillar edicts are the primary historical source for his reign and his embrace of Buddhism after the Kalinga War. Subhadrangi Dharma; Janapadakalyani in some traditions A queen of Bindusara named in later Buddhist tradition, particularly the Ashokavadana, as the mother of Ashoka. Bindusara Amitraghata ('slayer of foes') in some Greek accounts Second Maurya emperor; expanded the empire further into the Deccan and maintained diplomatic relations with the Hellenistic kingdoms, including receiving the ambassador Deimachus. Durdhara Named in some later Jain sources as a wife of Chandragupta Maurya and mother of Bindusara. Chandragupta Maurya Founder of the Maurya Empire, the first to unify most of the Indian subcontinent under one rule; overthrew the Nanda dynasty with Chanakya's guidance and later defeated Seleucus I Nicator. Chanakya Kautilya; Vishnugupta Brahmin scholar and strategist traditionally credited with engineering Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power; traditionally identified as author of the Arthashastra treatise on statecraft. Dhana Nanda Last king of the Nanda dynasty of Magadha, overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya with Chanakya's guidance, according to Buddhist, Jain and classical sources describing the Nanda-Maurya transition. Anathapindika Wealthy merchant of Savatthi and one of the Buddha's foremost lay patrons; famously purchased the Jeta Grove by covering it with gold coins to build the Jetavana monastery. Pasenadi King of Kosala and another major royal patron and lay follower of the Buddha, frequently depicted in the Pali Canon in dialogue with him. Ajatasattu King of Magadha, son of Bimbisara; traditionally said to have imprisoned and caused his father's death at Devadatta's instigation, though he later became a patron of the Sangha. Bimbisara King of Magadha and an early royal patron of the Buddha, who donated the Veluvana (Bamboo Grove) monastery near Rajagaha. Upali Former barber who became a monk and, at the First Buddhist Council, recited the monastic disciplinary code (Vinaya) from memory. Mahakassapa Senior disciple who presided over the First Buddhist Council at Rajagaha shortly after the Buddha's death, at which the teachings were formally recited and compiled. Moggallana One of the Buddha's two chief male disciples, alongside Sariputta, renowned for supernatural powers. Sariputta One of the Buddha's two chief male disciples, renowned for wisdom; traditionally regarded as foremost in analytical insight among the monks. Anuruddha A Shakya cousin of the Buddha who became one of his chief disciples, renowned for his mastery of the 'divine eye' (clairvoyance). Devadatta Cousin of the Buddha and originally one of his monks; later attempted to create a schism in the Sangha and, according to tradition, made several attempts on the Buddha's life. Ananda Cousin and longtime personal attendant of the Buddha, renowned for his exceptional memory; recited the Buddha's discourses from memory at the First Buddhist Council. Rahula Only son of Siddhartha Gautama and Yasodhara; later ordained as a novice monk under his father and is traditionally regarded as the first Buddhist novice. Yasodhara Wife of Siddhartha Gautama and mother of Rahula; later ordained as a Buddhist nun. Siddhartha Gautama Gautama Buddha; Shakyamuni ('sage of the Shakyas'); the Buddha Founder of Buddhism; Shakya prince who renounced his household life at 29, attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, and taught the Dharma for the next 45 years. Sukkodana A brother of Suddhodana named in Buddhist genealogical tradition, said in some sources to be the father of Ananda. Dhotodana A brother of Suddhodana named in Buddhist genealogical tradition; sources differ on the precise number and names of Suddhodana's brothers. Amitodana A brother of Suddhodana in Buddhist tradition, named in some sources as father of Ananda and/or Anuruddha. Suppabuddha Koliya chief named in Buddhist tradition as father of both Maya Devi and Mahapajapati Gotami, and also, in some accounts, of Devadatta. Mahapajapati Gotami Sister of Maya Devi, second wife of Suddhodana, and foster mother who raised Siddhartha after Maya Devi's death; later became the first woman ordained as a Buddhist nun. Maya Devi Chief queen of Suddhodana and mother of Siddhartha Gautama, who died seven days after his birth in the Lumbini grove. Suddhodana Chief (raja) of the Shakya clan at Kapilavastu; father of Siddhartha Gautama. Kaccana Wife of Sihahanu, named in Buddhist tradition as grandmother of Siddhartha Gautama. Sihahanu Shakya chief named in Buddhist tradition as the grandfather of Siddhartha Gautama, whose clan traced its ancestry to the solar-dynasty king Okkaka (Ikshvaku). Vishnugupta One of the last rulers associated with the Gupta imperial line, known from a small number of seals and inscriptions from the early 6th century, by which point Gupta central authority had greatly diminished. Budhagupta Later Gupta emperor, known from inscriptions to have ruled a reduced Gupta domain; his exact relationship to the preceding rulers is uncertain in the surviving record. Kumaragupta II Later Gupta ruler known mainly from a small number of inscriptions and coins, reflecting the empire's contraction in this period. Narasimhagupta Baladitya Later Gupta emperor associated with continued patronage of Nalanda; traditionally credited, though not without historical debate, with finally defeating the Huna king Mihirakula. Purugupta A son of Kumaragupta I named in some later Gupta inscriptions as a ruler, part of the disputed succession following Skandagupta's reign. Skandagupta Gupta emperor celebrated in the Junagadh rock inscription for repelling a major Huna invasion; generally regarded as the last of the strong Gupta emperors before the dynasty's decline. Kumaragupta I Gupta emperor whose long reign is credited with the founding or major patronage of Nalanda; his later reign saw the first recorded Huna incursions into Gupta territory. Rudrasena II Vakataka king of the Deccan, married to the Gupta princess Prabhavatigupta. Prabhavatigupta Daughter of Chandragupta II, married into the Vakataka dynasty of the Deccan; ruled as regent for her young sons after her husband's death. Kuberanaga A Naga-clan queen of Chandragupta II, named in inscriptions as mother of Prabhavatigupta. Dhruvadevi Queen at the center of the Devichandraguptam tradition, named in some later Gupta inscriptions as Chandragupta II's queen and mother of Kumaragupta I. Chandragupta II Vikramaditya Gupta emperor of the empire's height, patron of the 'Navaratnas' court tradition associated with the title Vikramaditya; married his daughter Prabhavatigupta into the Vakataka dynasty. Ramagupta Elder son of Samudragupta whose brief, disputed reign is known mainly from the largely lost Sanskrit drama Devichandraguptam rather than his own inscriptions. Dattadevi Chief queen of Samudragupta, named in Gupta-era inscriptions as mother of Chandragupta II. Samudragupta Called the 'Napoleon of India' by some modern historians for his extensive conquests Gupta emperor whose reign and conquests are recorded in the Allahabad Pillar inscription composed by his court poet Harishena; greatly expanded Gupta territory across northern India. Kumaradevi Licchavi princess whose marriage to Chandragupta I is commemorated on special 'King and Queen' gold coins naming both her and the Licchavi clan. Chandragupta I First Gupta ruler to take the title Maharajadhiraja ('king of great kings'); his marriage alliance with the Licchavi clan greatly strengthened Gupta power. Ghatotkacha (Gupta king) Second ruler of the Gupta line, known chiefly from inscriptions naming him father of Chandragupta I — not to be confused with the Mahabharata's Ghatotkacha, son of Bhima and Hidimbi. Sri Gupta Founder of the Gupta dynasty, known mainly from later inscriptions as the earliest ancestor in the royal line; his precise territory and dates remain debated among historians. Adapa Wise sage created by Enki, who was offered but refused the food and water of immortality on his father's mistaken advice while visiting Anu's heaven. Ninkasi Goddess of beer and brewing, celebrated in the Hymn to Ninkasi, one of the oldest surviving beer recipes. Nisaba Goddess of writing, grain and accounting, one of the oldest deities in the Sumerian pantheon. Anzu Monstrous lion-headed eagle who stole the Tablet of Destinies from Enlil; slain by Ninurta (or, in some versions, by Marduk). Ninurta God of war, agriculture and hunting, slayer of the monster Anzu after it stole the Tablet of Destinies. Geshtinanna Goddess of agriculture and dream interpretation, sister of Dumuzi, who volunteered to share his fate, spending half the year in the underworld in his place. Dumuzi (Tammuz) Tammuz (Akkadian form) Shepherd god and consort of Inanna/Ishtar, sent to the underworld in her place after her own return from the land of the dead. Shamhat Temple priestess of Uruk sent to civilize the wild man Enkidu in the Epic of Gilgamesh. Utnapishtim Ziusudra (Sumerian); Atrahasis (in the Atrahasis epic) Sole survivor of the great flood, granted immortality by the gods, who recounts the flood story to Gilgamesh — a narrative echoed in the later Genesis account of Noah. Humbaba (Huwawa) Monstrous guardian of the Cedar Forest, placed there by Enlil, slain by Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Enkidu Wild man created by the gods to be Gilgamesh's equal and rival, who instead became his closest companion, and whose death drives Gilgamesh to seek immortality. Ninsun Minor goddess, 'Lady Wild Cow,' mother of Gilgamesh, noted for her wisdom and skill in dream interpretation. Lugalbanda Legendary early king of Uruk, deified in later tradition, father of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh Legendary king of Uruk, two-thirds divine and one-third human, hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh, who fought the monster Humbaba, lost his friend Enkidu, and failed in his quest for immortality. Kingu Consort and general of Tiamat's army, given the Tablet of Destinies by her; slain by Marduk after Tiamat's defeat, his blood used by Ea to create humanity. Nabu God of writing, wisdom and scribes, son of Marduk in the later Babylonian pantheon. Sarpanit Consort of Marduk and mother goddess of Babylon. Marduk Patron god of Babylon and chief god of the Babylonian pantheon, who slew Tiamat and split her body to create the ordered cosmos, earning supreme kingship among the gods. Namtar God and demon of death and fate, chief minister of Ereshkigal in the underworld. Gugalanna The 'Bull of Heaven' and, in some Sumerian sources, an earlier husband of Ereshkigal, whose funeral Inanna claimed to be attending when she descended to the underworld. Nergal God of plague, war and death, who became king of the underworld by force, seizing Ereshkigal's throne and becoming her husband and co-ruler. Ereshkigal Sister of Inanna/Ishtar Queen of the underworld, sister of Inanna, who killed her when she descended to challenge her rule, and who later took the war god Nergal as husband and co-ruler. Inanna (Ishtar) Ishtar (Akkadian form) Goddess of love, war, fertility and political power, one of Mesopotamia's most important deities, who descended to the underworld to challenge her sister Ereshkigal and was killed and revived, with her husband Dumuzi taking her place. Utu (Shamash) Shamash (Akkadian form) Sun god and god of justice, truth and law, twin brother of Inanna/Ishtar and helper of the hero Gilgamesh. Ningal Goddess of reeds and consort of Nanna/Sin, mother of Utu/Shamash and Inanna/Ishtar. Nanna (Sin) Sin (Akkadian form) God of the moon, father of Utu/Shamash and Inanna/Ishtar in Sumerian tradition. Ninhursag Ninmah; Nintu; 'Mother of the Gods' Great mother goddess associated with earth, mountains and fertility, who helped Enki fashion the first humans from clay. Enki (Ea) Ea (Akkadian form) God of water, wisdom, crafts and magic, patron of humanity, who killed Apsu, warned Utnapishtim of the coming flood, and helped fashion the first humans. Ninlil Goddess of air and grain, consort of Enlil and mother of several major gods including Nanna/Sin. Enlil God of wind, storm and air, effective ruler of the gods in Sumerian tradition, who sent the great flood to destroy noisy humanity only to be thwarted by Ea's warning to Utnapishtim. Anu (An) An (Sumerian form) Supreme sky god and nominal head of the pantheon in both Sumerian and Babylonian tradition, father of Enlil and Ea. Kishar Goddess personifying the horizon of the earth, mother of Anu, and one of the last generation of gods before the great gods proper. Anshar God personifying the horizon of the heavens, father of Anu, and one of the last generation of gods before the great gods proper. Lahamu Female counterpart of Lahmu, one of the first pair of gods born from Apsu and Tiamat, personifying silt. Lahmu One of the first pair of gods born from Apsu and Tiamat, personifying silt, and ancestor of the later gods of the Mesopotamian pantheon. Mummu Vizier and minister of Apsu, captured and bound by Ea after Apsu's death in the Enuma Elish. Tiamat Primordial goddess of the salt sea and mother of the first gods, who raised an army of monsters to avenge Apsu but was slain by her great-grandson Marduk, who split her body to form sky and earth. Apsu Primordial god of fresh water who, with Tiamat, fathered the first gods; killed in his sleep by Ea after plotting to destroy his noisy divine descendants. Renenutet Cobra goddess of the harvest, nourishment and the protection of the pharaoh and granaries. Hapi (Nile god) God and personification of the annual Nile flood, depicted with a swollen belly and pendulous breasts to represent fertility and abundance. Serqet Scorpion goddess of healing and protection against venom, one of the four goddesses who guard the canopic jars alongside Isis, Nephthys and Neith. Wadjet Cobra goddess and protector of Lower Egypt, depicted on the pharaoh's crown as the uraeus. Nekhbet Vulture goddess and protector of Upper Egypt and of the pharaoh. Neith Ancient warrior and creator goddess of Sais, associated with weaving and sometimes named as mother of Sobek or of Ra in Saite tradition. Min God of fertility, male sexual potency and the eastern desert, chiefly worshipped at Koptos and Akhmim. Anuket Goddess of the Nile cataracts, third member of the Elephantine Triad alongside her parents Khnum and Satis. Satis Goddess of the Nile's floodwaters, worshipped at Elephantine with Khnum and Anuket. Khnum Ram-headed god of the source of the Nile, said to shape human children and their kas on a potter's wheel. Sobek Crocodile-headed god of the Nile, fertility and military prowess, chiefly worshipped in the Faiyum and at Kom Ombo. Ammit Composite demoness with a crocodile head, lion forequarters and hippopotamus hindquarters, who devours the hearts of the dead found unworthy at judgment. Heka God and personification of magic itself, said in some texts to have existed before creation and to animate the acts of other gods. Seshat Goddess of writing, measurement, record-keeping and libraries, sometimes described as Thoth's wife or daughter. Ma'at Goddess and personification of truth, order and cosmic justice, whose feather is weighed against the heart of the deceased in the underworld judgment. Thoth Ibis-headed god of wisdom, writing and magic, scribe of the gods, credited with inventing hieroglyphs and recording the verdict of the weighing of the heart. Nefertum God of the lotus blossom and of perfume, third member of the Memphite Triad alongside his parents Ptah and Sekhmet. Ptah Creator god of Memphis and patron of craftsmen, who in Memphite theology creates the world through the thought and speech of his heart and tongue. Khonsu Moon god, third member of the Theban Triad alongside his parents Amun and Mut. Mut Mother goddess and consort of Amun at Thebes, forming with him and their son Khonsu the Theban Triad. Amun Amun-Ra when merged with Ra King of the gods at Thebes, originally one of the eight Hermopolitan primordial deities, who rose to become the pre-eminent state god of the New Kingdom, merged with Ra as Amun-Ra. Apophis (Apep) Primordial serpent of chaos, the great adversary of Ra, fought nightly by the sun god and his allies as the solar barque crosses the underworld. Bastet Cat goddess of the home, fertility and protection, daughter of Ra and a gentler counterpart to the fierce Sekhmet. Sekhmet Lioness-headed goddess of war and healing, the destructive form taken by Hathor as the Eye of Ra when unleashed against humanity, later worshipped at Memphis as consort of Ptah. Hathor Goddess of love, joy, motherhood and music, daughter of Ra, also worshipped as the fierce Eye of Ra sent to punish rebellious humanity. Ra Re; Atum-Ra when merged with Atum Sun god and one of the most important deities of ancient Egypt, who sails across the sky by day and battles the chaos-serpent Apophis in the underworld each night. Wepwawet Wolf-headed god of war and 'opener of the ways,' closely associated with Anubis and with funerary rites. Anubis Jackal-headed god of embalming and the protection of graves; sources vary on his parentage, naming him a son of Ra in one tradition and of Osiris and Nephthys in another. Qebehsenuef One of the Four Sons of Horus, falcon-headed funerary deity who guards the canopic jar containing the intestines. Duamutef One of the Four Sons of Horus, jackal-headed funerary deity who guards the canopic jar containing the stomach. Hapy (son of Horus) One of the Four Sons of Horus, baboon-headed funerary deity who guards the canopic jar containing the lungs. Imsety One of the Four Sons of Horus, human-headed funerary deity who guards the canopic jar containing the liver. Horus the Elder Haroeris; Horus Wer An older form of Horus distinct in origin from Horus son of Isis, son of Geb and Nut and brother of Osiris and Set, worshipped independently as a sky and kingship god before later tradition merged the two figures. Horus (son of Isis) Horus the Younger; Harsiese Falcon-headed god of kingship and the sky, son of Osiris and Isis, raised in hiding and eventually victorious in a long contest against his uncle Set for Egypt's throne. Nephthys Goddess of mourning, night and the dead, sister and companion of Isis, married to Set but siding with Isis and Osiris in the central myth. Set (Seth) God of storms, chaos and foreign lands, who murdered his brother Osiris and usurped Egypt's throne, then fought a long contest for it against Osiris's son Horus, which Horus eventually won. Isis Goddess of magic, motherhood and protection, who reassembled the murdered Osiris's body, conceived Horus with him, and raised their son in secret to protect him from Set. Osiris God of the afterlife and mythic first king of Egypt, murdered and dismembered by his brother Set; reassembled by Isis, who conceived Horus with him, and became ruler of the underworld. Nut Goddess of the sky, wife of Geb, often depicted arched over him swallowing and rebirthing the sun each day; mother of Osiris, Isis, Set and Nephthys. Geb God of the earth, son of Shu and Tefnut, father of Osiris, Isis, Set and Nephthys, and — in Manetho's later tradition — a legendary king of Egypt. Tefnut Goddess of moisture, rain and dew, twin sister and consort of Shu, born directly to Atum as the second act of creation. Shu God of air and light, born to Atum without a mother alongside his twin sister Tefnut, who separates the sky (Nut) from the earth (Geb). Atum Self-created creator deity of the Heliopolitan cosmogony who emerged from the waters of Nun and produced the first divine pair, Shu and Tefnut; often merged with Ra as Atum-Ra. Amaunet Female counterpart of Amun in the Hermopolitan Ogdoad, personifying hiddenness and invisibility before Amun's later rise to supremacy at Thebes. Kauket Female counterpart of Kek in the Hermopolitan Ogdoad, personifying primeval darkness. Kek Personification of primeval darkness, one of the eight Hermopolitan primordial deities that preceded the light of creation. Hauhet Female counterpart of Heh in the Hermopolitan Ogdoad, personifying infinity. Heh Personification of infinite space and boundlessness, one of the eight Hermopolitan primordial deities that preceded creation. Naunet Female counterpart of Nun in the Hermopolitan Ogdoad, personifying the hidden depths of the primeval waters. Nun Personification of the boundless primeval waters that existed before creation, from which the sun god Atum (or Ra) emerged to begin the world. Amenhotep III Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty whose Luxor Temple 'Divine Birth' reliefs present Amun as his true father, in the same narrative pattern used earlier for Hatshepsut. Thutmose IV King of the 18th Dynasty, father of Amenhotep III in the conventional dynastic record, whose form Amun is said to have taken to visit Mutemwiya. Mutemwiya A wife of Thutmose IV; the Luxor Temple birth reliefs describe her as visited by Amun in the guise of the king to conceive Amenhotep III. Hatshepsut Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty whose mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahari records a full 'Divine Birth' cycle presenting Amun, not Thutmose I, as her true father. Ahmose (queen) Great Royal Wife of Thutmose I; the Deir el-Bahari birth reliefs describe her as visited by Amun in the guise of Thutmose I to conceive Hatshepsut. Thutmose I King of the 18th Dynasty in whose form Amun is said to have visited Queen Ahmose in the Deir el-Bahari 'Divine Birth' relief cycle, legitimizing the birth of their daughter Hatshepsut. Amun (as divine father of kings) In New Kingdom royal theology, Amun takes the form of the reigning king to visit the queen and father the next pharaoh, legitimizing royal succession as divinely ordained — recorded twice, for Hatshepsut and Amenhotep III. Heqet Frog-headed goddess of fertility and childbirth, one of the four goddesses who assist at Reddjedet's delivery in the Papyrus Westcar. Meskhenet Goddess of childbirth and fate who, in the Papyrus Westcar, attends Reddjedet's labor and foretells kingship for each of the three infants. Neferirkare (as told in the Westcar tale) One of the three sons fathered by Ra on Reddjedet in the Papyrus Westcar; historically the third king of the 5th Dynasty, though the papyrus frames his birth as literally divine. Sahure (as told in the Westcar tale) One of the three sons fathered by Ra on Reddjedet in the Papyrus Westcar; historically the second king of the 5th Dynasty, though the papyrus frames his birth as literally divine. Userkaf (as told in the Westcar tale) One of the three sons fathered by Ra on Reddjedet in the Papyrus Westcar; historically the first king of the 5th Dynasty, though the papyrus frames his birth as literally divine. Reddjedet Wife of the priest Rauser who, in the Papyrus Westcar, conceives triplets by the god Ra himself, foretold to become kings of Egypt and assisted through a difficult labor by four disguised goddesses. Rauser A priest of Ra at Sakhbu, the legal husband of Reddjedet in the Papyrus Westcar narrative, whose wife is chosen by the god Ra himself to bear his three sons. Khufu King of the 4th Dynasty and frame narrator of the Papyrus Westcar tales, in which he is told a prophecy that his own dynasty will be succeeded by three sons born to a priest's wife by the god Ra. Horus (as king) Legendary ruler of Egypt in Manetho's divine dynasty, said to have finally defeated Set and restored order — the same god Horus recorded here specifically in his dynastic role as the last of the divine kings before the Followers of Horus and human rule. Set (as king) Legendary usurper-king of Egypt in Manetho's divine dynasty, seizing the throne after murdering his brother Osiris — the same god Set recorded here specifically in his dynastic role. Osiris (as king) Legendary ruler of Egypt in Manetho's divine dynasty, murdered by his brother Set — the same god Osiris recorded here specifically in his capacity as a literal reigning king rather than as the later ruler of the underworld. Geb (as king) Legendary ruler of Egypt in Manetho's divine dynasty, succeeding Shu and father of Osiris and Set in their roles as kings — the same earth god Geb recorded here specifically in his dynastic role. Shu (as king) Legendary ruler of Egypt in Manetho's divine dynasty, succeeding Ra — the same air god Shu recorded here specifically in his dynastic role. Ra (as king) Second legendary ruler of Egypt after Ptah, according to Manetho's king-list of the gods — the same sun god Ra recorded here specifically in his dynastic role. Ptah (as first king) In Manetho's Aegyptiaca, the very first ruler of Egypt in the legendary age before human kings — the same god Ptah worshipped at Memphis, recorded here in his specific role as founding king. Atli Attila in the historical/legendary conflation common in this cycle King of the Huns and Gudrun's second husband, who killed her brothers Gunnar and Hogni for the cursed Nibelung gold, and was in turn killed by her in revenge. Brynhild Brünnhilde in the German tradition Valkyrie placed in an enchanted sleep behind a wall of flame, won and pledged to by Sigurd, then betrayed by a disguise she did not detect — a betrayal that ended in his death and her own. Gudrun Daughter of Gjuki, first wife of Sigurd and later, unwillingly, of Atli; avenged her murdered brothers by killing their sons and serving Atli their flesh, then killing him too. Hogni Son of Gjuki, brother of Gunnar and Gudrun, killed alongside Gunnar by Atli after being lured to the Hunnish court to seize the cursed Nibelung gold. Gunnar Son of Gjuki who won Brynhild as his wife only through Sigurd's disguised help, then conspired in Sigurd's murder when the deception was revealed; later killed by Atli in a snake pit. Grimhild Sorceress queen of the Gjukungs, whose potion of forgetfulness made Sigurd forget Brynhild and marry her own daughter Gudrun, setting the saga's tragedy irrevocably in motion. Gjuki King of the Burgundians, husband of the sorceress Grimhild, and father of Gunnar, Hogni, and Gudrun — the family whose intrigue destroys Sigurd. Sigurd Siegfried in the German Nibelungenlied tradition Central hero of the cycle, slayer of the dragon Fafnir, who won and then, deceived by a memory-erasing potion, betrayed the valkyrie Brynhild — a betrayal that led to his own murder. Hjordis Second wife of Sigmund and mother of Sigurd, who preserved her husband's shattered sword for their unborn son after his death in battle. Signy Daughter of Volsung and sister of Sigmund, whose marriage to the treacherous King Siggeir led her to help engineer his destruction, at devastating personal cost. Sigmund Son of Volsung, the only one able to draw a magical sword from a tree at his sister's wedding; father of Sigurd, killed in his final battle when his sword shattered against a disguised Odin's spear. Volsung Son of Rerir who gives the House of Volsung its name, father of Sigmund and Signy and grandfather of Sigurd. Rerir Son of Sigi and father of Volsung, a transitional figure connecting the saga's founding generation to the dynasty that bears the Volsung name. Sigi Legendary ancestor of the House of Volsung, founder of the dynasty whose descendants Sigmund and Sigurd form the heart of the saga. Regin Smith who fostered and trained Sigurd, forged his sword, and urged him to kill his own brother Fafnir — intending to betray and kill Sigurd afterward to claim the gold alone, but was killed by him instead. Fafnir Son of Hreidmar who killed his own father for the cursed gold, then transformed into a dragon to guard it, before being slain by Sigurd. Otr Son of Hreidmar, accidentally killed by Loki while in otter form; the cursed gold paid as compensation for his death sets the whole saga's tragedy in motion. Hreidmar Farmer-sorcerer father of Fafnir, Regin, and Otr, who demanded Andvari's cursed gold as compensation for his son's accidental death, and was killed for it by his own son. Andvari Dwarf whose entire hoard of gold, taken by Loki under compulsion, carried a curse of ruin onto everyone who would later possess it, including Sigurd's own line. Ajax Ajax the Great One of the strongest Achaean warriors at Troy, who lost a contest for Achilles's armor to Odysseus after Achilles's death and took his own life in despair. Telamon Local stub linking to the Greek Pantheon project, where his own father Aeacus is recorded King of Salamis, father of the great warrior Ajax, and a veteran companion of Heracles from earlier heroic expeditions. Telemachus Son of Odysseus and Penelope, who came of age during his father's long absence and helped him defeat the suitors occupying their household. Penelope Wife of Odysseus, famed for her fidelity during his twenty-year absence, fending off suitors by claiming she would choose one once she finished a shroud she secretly unraveled each night. Odysseus King of Ithaca famed for cunning, who devised the Trojan Horse and spent ten more years struggling home to his wife Penelope. Laertes King of Ithaca and father of Odysseus, who lived to see his son return home after twenty years away at Troy and on his long voyage back. Patroclus Close companion of Achilles, killed by Hector while wearing Achilles's own armor — the death that draws Achilles back into the Trojan War. Achilles Local stub; his mother Thetis is recorded in the Greek Pantheon project Greatest Achaean warrior at Troy, invulnerable but for his heel; his withdrawal and return to battle, and his death from Paris's arrow, form the Iliad's core. Peleus Local stub linking to the Greek Pantheon project, where his wife Thetis is recorded Mortal king of Phthia whose wedding to the sea-nymph Thetis, and the discord sown at it by an uninvited goddess, indirectly set the Trojan War in motion. Menelaus King of Sparta whose wife Helen's departure with Paris caused the Trojan War, which he helped lead as Agamemnon's brother. Orestes Son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra who avenged his father's murder by killing his own mother, an act that entangles him with the avenging Furies. Iphigenia Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, sacrificed by her father at Aulis to secure favorable winds for the fleet's departure to Troy. Clytemnestra Sister of Helen; her parentage (Zeus and Leda) is recorded in the Greek Pantheon project Wife of Agamemnon who murdered him on his return from Troy in revenge for the sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia, and was in turn killed by their son Orestes. Agamemnon King of Mycenae and commander of the Achaean forces at Troy, who sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia and was murdered by his wife Clytemnestra upon his return home. Atreus King of Mycenae, father of Agamemnon and Menelaus, whose horrific revenge on his brother Thyestes deepened the curse on the House of Atreus. Pelops Ancestor of the House of Atreus, whose ivory shoulder (replacing one eaten by the gods) and chariot-race victory established the family that would rule Mycenae. Aeneas Trojan hero and son of Aphrodite who survived the fall of Troy; his onward journey became the legendary foundation of Rome. Cassandra Trojan prophetess, daughter of Priam and Hecuba, cursed by Apollo so that her true prophecies — including warnings about the wooden horse — were never believed. Paris Alexander Trojan prince whose abduction of Helen caused the Trojan War, and who later killed Achilles with an arrow to his one vulnerable heel. Hector Greatest Trojan warrior and defender of the city through most of the war, killed by Achilles in single combat to avenge Patroclus. Hecuba Queen of Troy, wife of Priam and mother of Hector, Paris, and Cassandra among many children, who lived to see nearly all of them killed. Priam King of Troy during the Trojan War, father of fifty children including Hector and Paris, who saw his city destroyed and was killed at its fall. Laomedon King of Troy who cheated the gods Apollo and Poseidon of their wages for building his city walls, and was later killed by Heracles for a similar betrayal. Ilus Son of Tros; founder of Ilium, the city proper that gives the Iliad its name. Tros Legendary king after whom Troy and the region of Troad were named, ancestor of the city's royal line. Pelias Usurper king of Iolcos who seized the throne from his half-brother Aeson and sent his nephew Jason after the Golden Fleece hoping he would never return. Medea Sorceress princess of Colchis whose magic won the Golden Fleece for Jason; after he abandoned her, she took a terrible revenge, in the most famous version killing their own children. Jason Leader of the Argonauts who won the Golden Fleece from Colchis with the sorceress Medea's help, then abandoned her for a political marriage. Aeson Rightful king of Iolcos, deposed by his half-brother Pelias, whose fear of a prophesied rival led him to send his nephew Jason on the quest for the Golden Fleece. Phaedra Second wife of Theseus, whose unrequited passion for her stepson Hippolytus ended in false accusation, his death, and her own suicide. Ariadne Cretan princess who gave Theseus the thread that let him escape the labyrinth after slaying the Minotaur, only to be abandoned by him on Naxos. Aethra Princess of Troezen, mother of Theseus by Aegeus (and, in some traditions, also by Poseidon on the same night). Aegeus King of Athens whose mistaken belief that his son Theseus had died in Crete led him to leap into the sea that now bears his name. Hyllus Son of Heracles and Deianira, ancestor of the Heraclidae, who traditionally returned generations later to claim the Peloponnese. Deianira Second wife of Heracles, who unknowingly caused his death by giving him a robe poisoned with the blood of the centaur Nessus. Megara First wife of Heracles, a Theban princess whose children he killed in a fit of madness sent by Hera — the act that set the Twelve Labors in motion. Amphitryon Mortal husband of Alcmene; on the night Zeus visited her disguised as Amphitryon himself, she conceived both the divine Heracles and Amphitryon's own mortal son. Electryon Son of Perseus and Andromeda, king of Mycenae, whose daughter Alcmene became the mother of Heracles. Andromeda Ethiopian princess chained to a sea cliff as an offering to a monster, rescued by Perseus, who then married her and became ancestor of the Mycenaean royal line. Acrisius King of Argos who imprisoned his daughter Danaë after an oracle warned her son would kill him — a prophecy fulfilled years later by his grandson Perseus. Arphaxad A son of Shem, named in the Table of Nations and as the first link in the genealogy of Genesis 11 that continues through Eber, Peleg and eventually to Abraham. Mizraim A son of Ham, whose name is the standard Hebrew word for Egypt, making him the ancestral figure the Table of Nations associates directly with that country. Cush A son of Ham, father of Nimrod, whose descendants in Genesis 10 are generally associated by scholars with regions of Africa and Arabia, particularly ancient Nubia. Canaan A son of Ham, whose descendants Genesis identifies as the peoples of the land of Canaan, and who is the object of Noah's curse following the episode of Noah's drunkenness. Aram A son of Shem named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, associated with the Arameans, a people whose territory and language (Aramaic) became significant across much of the later biblical world. Lud A son of Shem named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, associated variously by scholars with Lydia in Asia Minor or with a people in North Africa, based on differing later biblical references. Asshur A son of Shem named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, associated with the land and people of Assyria, whose name is directly derived from his. Elam A son of Shem named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, associated by scholars with the ancient civilisation of Elam, located in what is now south-western Iran. Put A son of Ham, named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, generally associated by scholars with a region in North Africa. Nimrod A son of Cush, described in Genesis as a mighty warrior and the founder of a kingdom including Babel, later associated in tradition with the Tower of Babel and with defiance of God. Tiras A son of Japheth named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, son of Japheth. Meshech A son of Japheth named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, son of Japheth, often paired with Tubal in later prophetic literature such as Ezekiel. Tubal A son of Japheth named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, son of Japheth. Javan A son of Japheth named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, son of Japheth, whose name is generally associated by scholars with the Ionian Greeks. Madai A son of Japheth named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, son of Japheth. Magog A son of Japheth named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, son of Japheth. Gomer A son of Japheth named in the Table of Nations of Genesis 10, son of Japheth. Amalek A grandson of Esau through Eliphaz and the concubine Timna, identified in Genesis as the ancestral figure of the Amalekites, who become one of Israel's most persistent enemies in later biblical books. Reuel A son of Esau and Basemath, named among the Edomite chiefs in Genesis 36. Eliphaz A son of Esau and Adah, whose own son Amalek is identified in Genesis as the ancestor of the Amalekites, later a persistent enemy of Israel. Basemath (wife of Esau) Basemath A wife of Esau, described in Genesis 36 as a daughter of Ishmael, mother of Reuel. Adah (wife of Esau) Adah A wife of Esau, described in Genesis 36 as a Hittite (or, in another verse, Elonite), mother of Eliphaz. Kedemah A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Naphish A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Jetur A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Tema A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Hadad A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Massa A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Dumah A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Mishma A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Mibsam A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Adbeel A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Kedar A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Nebaioth A son of Ishmael, one of twelve tribal princes named in Genesis 25 as fulfilling the promise that Ishmael would father a great nation. Shuah A son of Abraham and Keturah, one of six sons sent eastward by Abraham to make way for Isaac's inheritance. Ishbak A son of Abraham and Keturah, one of six sons sent eastward by Abraham to make way for Isaac's inheritance. Midian A son of Abraham and Keturah, one of six sons sent eastward by Abraham to make way for Isaac's inheritance. Medan A son of Abraham and Keturah, one of six sons sent eastward by Abraham to make way for Isaac's inheritance. Jokshan A son of Abraham and Keturah, one of six sons sent eastward by Abraham to make way for Isaac's inheritance. Zimran A son of Abraham and Keturah, one of six sons sent eastward by Abraham to make way for Isaac's inheritance. Laban The son of Bethuel and brother of Rebekah, whose household in Paddan-aram becomes the setting for Jacob's twenty years of labour, marriages to Leah and Rachel, and eventual departure. Bethuel The son of Nahor and Milcah, father of Rebekah and Laban, whose family in Paddan-aram provides wives for both Isaac and Jacob. Ben-Ammi The son of Lot and his younger daughter, identified in Genesis as the ancestor of the Ammonites. Moab The son of Lot and his elder daughter, identified in Genesis as the ancestor of the Moabites, a people who appear frequently throughout the Hebrew Bible. Younger daughter of Lot (unnamed) The younger, unnamed daughter of Lot, whose son by her father, Ben-Ammi, is identified in Genesis as the ancestor of the Ammonites. Elder daughter of Lot (unnamed) The elder, unnamed daughter of Lot, whose son by her father, Moab, is identified in Genesis as the ancestor of the Moabites. Lot The nephew of Abraham, who accompanied him from Ur to Canaan, settled near Sodom, and, after being rescued twice by Abraham, fled the city's destruction with his daughters, whose later union with him becomes the origin story of Moab and Ammon. Iscah A daughter of Haran, named briefly in Genesis alongside her siblings Lot and Milcah, with no further narrative given. Milcah The daughter of Haran who married her uncle Nahor, becoming, through their son Bethuel, the grandmother of Rebekah and Laban. Haran The brother of Abraham who died before their father Terah, leaving a son, Lot, and two daughters, Milcah and Iscah. Nahor (son of Terah) Nahor The brother of Abraham, who remained in Mesopotamia and whose marriage to his niece Milcah produced the line leading to Rebekah and Laban. Ephraim The younger son of Joseph and Asenath, formally adopted by Jacob and given the greater blessing over his elder brother Manasseh, becoming the ancestral figure of one of the half-tribes of Israel and later a name used for the northern kingdom as a whole. Manasseh The elder son of Joseph and Asenath, formally adopted by Jacob as his own son, and the ancestral figure of one of the half-tribes of Israel, though given the lesser blessing by Jacob in favour of his younger brother Ephraim. Asenath The Egyptian wife of Joseph, daughter of Potiphera, priest of On, and mother of Manasseh and Ephraim. Joseph A son of Jacob and Rachel, sold into slavery in Egypt by his jealous brothers, who rose to become second only to Pharaoh and, through his provision during famine, preserved his family, whose reconciliation with him is one of Genesis's most celebrated narratives. Dinah The daughter of Jacob and Leah, whose assault by Shechem, a Hivite prince, led her brothers Simeon and Levi to a violent revenge that troubled Jacob. Benjamin A son of Jacob and eponymous ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, the twelfth and youngest son of Jacob, born to Rachel in labour that caused her death, originally named Ben-oni by his dying mother before Jacob renamed him. Zebulun A son of Jacob and eponymous ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, the sixth and last son Leah bore to Jacob directly, whose birth she hoped would finally win her husband's honour. Issachar A son of Jacob and eponymous ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, a son of Jacob and Leah, born after the episode in which Leah traded mandrakes found by her son Reuben to Rachel for a night with Jacob. Asher A son of Jacob and eponymous ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, a son of Jacob by Leah's servant Zilpah, whose name Leah connected to being called 'happy' by other women. Gad A son of Jacob and eponymous ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, a son of Jacob by Leah's servant Zilpah, whose name Leah explained with the exclamation 'Good fortune!'. Naphtali A son of Jacob and eponymous ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, a son of Jacob by Rachel's servant Bilhah, described by Rachel as won through her 'mighty wrestlings' with her sister. Dan A son of Jacob and eponymous ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, a son of Jacob by Rachel's servant Bilhah, whose name Rachel explained as meaning God had 'judged' her case and given her a son. Judah A son of Jacob and eponymous ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, whose descendants become the royal line of Israel, including King David, and from whom the name 'Jew' and 'Judaism' ultimately derive. Levi A son of Jacob and eponymous ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, the third son of Jacob and Leah, whose descendants, the Levites, became the priestly tribe of Israel, set apart for religious service rather than given a territorial inheritance. Simeon A son of Jacob and eponymous ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, the second son of Jacob and Leah, who, with his brother Levi, violently avenged their sister Dinah's assault at Shechem. Reuben A son of Jacob and eponymous ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, Jacob's firstborn, whose privileged status as firstborn was forfeited, according to Jacob's final blessing, because he 'went up onto your father's bed' with Bilhah. Zilpah The servant of Leah, given to Jacob to bear children in her mistress's name, mother of Gad and Asher. Bilhah The servant of Rachel, given to Jacob to bear children in her mistress's name, mother of Dan and Naphtali. Rachel The younger daughter of Laban and Jacob's most beloved wife, whose long infertility and eventual death in childbirth with Benjamin frame her story. Leah The elder daughter of Laban, whom Jacob was deceived into marrying before Rachel, and the mother of six of his sons, including Levi and Judah. Jacob Israel The younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, later renamed Israel, whose twelve sons by four women become the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel. Esau Edom The elder twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, a skilled hunter who sold his birthright to Jacob for a bowl of stew, and whose descendants Genesis identifies as the Edomites. Rebekah The wife of Isaac, daughter of Bethuel, chosen through a servant's prayer and test at a well, whose favouritism toward her younger son Jacob leads him to deceive Isaac and receive the blessing intended for Esau. Ishmael The son of Abraham and Hagar, promised by God to become the father of a great nation, and, according to Genesis 25, the father of twelve tribal princes. Isaac The son of Abraham and Sarah, born in their old age as the child of God's covenant promise, whose binding as a near-sacrifice and whose own family with Rebekah continue the patriarchal narrative. Keturah A wife of Abraham after Sarah's death, mother of six sons who become the ancestors of several peoples associated with Arabia. Hagar The Egyptian servant of Sarah, given to Abraham as a surrogate wife, and the mother of Ishmael. Sarah Sarai The wife of Abraham and mother of Isaac, whose long childlessness and eventual, unexpected pregnancy in old age is central to the fulfilment of God's covenant promise. Abraham Abram The central patriarchal figure of Genesis, called by God to leave his homeland for Canaan and made the recipient of a covenant promising numerous descendants and the land of Canaan. Naamah A daughter of Lamech and Zillah, sister of Tubal-cain, named in the Genesis genealogy of Cain's line. Tubal-cain A son of Lamech and Zillah, credited in Genesis with forging tools of bronze and iron. Jubal A son of Lamech and Adah, credited in Genesis with being the ancestor of all who play the lyre and pipe. Jabal A son of Lamech and Adah, credited in Genesis with being the ancestor of those who dwell in tents and keep livestock. Zillah One of the two wives of the Cainite Lamech, mother of Tubal-cain and Naamah. Adah One of the two wives of the Cainite Lamech, mother of Jabal and Jubal. Lamech (Cainite) Lamech A descendant of Cain, remembered as the first person in Genesis described as taking two wives, and for a boastful poem about avenging himself far beyond the protection given to Cain. Methushael A figure in the Genesis genealogy of Cain's line, leading to Lamech. Mehujael A figure in the Genesis genealogy of Cain's line, leading to Lamech. Irad A figure in the Genesis genealogy of Cain's line, leading to Lamech. Enoch (son of Cain) Enoch A son of Cain, after whom Cain named the first city mentioned in Genesis. Terah The father of Abraham, Nahor and Haran, who set out from Ur of the Chaldeans toward Canaan but settled and died in Haran. Nahor (son of Serug) A figure in the Genesis genealogy from Shem to Abraham, son of Serug, grandfather of Terah. Serug A figure in the Genesis genealogy from Shem to Abraham, son of Reu. Reu A figure in the Genesis genealogy from Shem to Abraham, son of Peleg. Peleg A figure in the Genesis genealogy from Shem to Abraham, son of Eber, whose name Genesis connects to the earth being 'divided' in his days. Eber A figure in the Genesis genealogy from Shem to Abraham, son of Shelah, from whose name some scholars connect the term 'Hebrew'. Shelah A figure in the Genesis genealogy from Shem to Abraham, son of Arphaxad. Japheth A son of Noah, whose descendants, according to the Table of Nations in Genesis 10, populate the coastlands and are traditionally associated with peoples to the north and west. Ham A son of Noah, whose conduct upon seeing his father drunk and uncovered led Noah to pronounce a curse on Ham's son Canaan. Shem A son of Noah, whose descendants, according to Genesis, include the line continuing through Arphaxad to Abraham; the term 'Semitic' derives from his name. Noah's wife (unnamed in the text) The wife of Noah, who survived the flood aboard the ark with her husband and sons; Genesis does not give her a personal name. Noah The central figure of the flood narrative, who built an ark at God's command to preserve his family and pairs of every kind of animal from the great flood. Lamech The father of Noah, whose naming of his son expresses hope for relief from the toil of the cursed ground. Methuselah A son of Enoch, recorded in Genesis as living 969 years, the longest lifespan of any person named in the Bible. Enoch (son of Jared) Enoch A son of Jared in the line of Seth, remembered in Genesis for having 'walked with God' and being taken by God rather than dying an ordinary death. Jared A figure in the Genesis genealogy from Adam to Noah, son of Mahalalel, in the genealogy from Adam to Noah, and the father of Enoch. Mahalalel A figure in the Genesis genealogy from Adam to Noah, son of Kenan, in the genealogy from Adam to Noah. Kenan A figure in the Genesis genealogy from Adam to Noah, son of Enosh, in the genealogy from Adam to Noah. Enosh A son of Seth, in whose time, according to Genesis, people began to call upon the name of the Lord. Seth The third named son of Adam and Eve, born after Abel's death, through whom Genesis traces the genealogical line that continues to Noah. Abel The second son of Adam and Eve, a shepherd whose offering was favoured by God, and who was killed by his jealous brother Cain in the Bible's first recorded murder. Cain The eldest son of Adam and Eve, a farmer whose jealousy over God's rejection of his offering led him to kill his brother Abel, after which he was cursed to wander. Eve The first woman, formed from Adam's rib according to Genesis, whose choice to eat the forbidden fruit, and Adam's after her, leads to their expulsion from Eden.

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